Background of the Conflict
General
1.
On 02 August 1990, the then 4th largest standing army of the world “Iraq”,
invaded and occupied Kuwait which initiated the Gulf War 1991. As a result of
the invasion and failing to comply with the UN resolution, the war started
between Iraq and UN coalition of 34 countries led by the US. Actual fighting
commenced on 17 January 1991 with a massive air attack. The war ended on 28
February 1991 with the Coalition victory and unilateral cease-fire.
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Background
of the War/ Genesis of the Conflict
2.
The causes of Iraqi invasion in Kuwait and then the reaction of the US led
Coalition forces are discussed below:
a.
Causes of Iraqi Invasion.
(1)
Creation of Kuwait.
After the collapse of Ottoman Empire, creation of Kuwait on 19 January 1961
was not accepted by lraq. They believed that Kuwait had been the part of lraqi
province Basra in Ottoman times.
(2)
Land Dispute.
Iraq had only 23 miles of shoreline of Arabian Gulf, whereas
Kuwait got around 120 miles. Iraq was highly discontent since the independence
of Kuwait on this issue.
(3)
Access to Persian Gulf. To gain direct control
at warbah and Bubyan Island, for securing access to its ports to the Persian
Gulf, lraq invaded the war.
(4)
Inability to Repay Loans. Iraq could not repay about 80$ billion
loan that had been borrowed to finance the lran-lraq war. Kuwait’s decision not
to wave off the debt aggravated the lraqi invasion.
(5)
Wealth of Kuwait. The Kuwaitis were incredibly rich
and had huge investment abroad. Access to this wealth could resolve lraq’s
financial problems.
(6)
Oil Drilling from Disputed Border.
Iraq allegedly proclaimed that Kuwait was drilling oil from Rumaylah oil field,
which lay in the disputed border territory.
(7)
To Emerge as Regional power. In post-cold war scenario,
Saddam wanted to emerge as Regional power.
(8)
Ambitious Saddam.
Saddam wanted to see himself as the revolutionary leader of the Arab world. He
wanted to create a psychological impact on her neighbors by airing a threat of
force against them.
(9)
Oil production beyond the Limit of OPEC. Over
production of oil by Kuwait and UAE suffered lraq a huge (approximately $4
billion) in collecting oil. Being shambled by the pressure of debt and war
reconstruction, this naturally enraged lraq.
(10)
Failed Mediation by the Arabs. Arab mediators
convinced lraq and Kuwait to negotiate in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, on 01 August
1990, but failed. 2nd session was scheduled to take place in
Bangladesh, but lraq invaded Kuwait the next day on 02 August 1990.
b. The Causes of Allied/ US Led Coalitions.
(1)
UN and World Politics. The UN,
world community and the Gulf states in particular did not accept the
taking over of Kuwait by lraq.
(2)
US and its Security lnterest in the Gulf.
The US had security interest in the Persian Gulf because of the oil resource
and lsrael issue.
(3)
Development of WMD by lraq. The so called and
over publicized capability of lraq on WMD was directed in conflict with the US
policy on non-proliferation in the region.
(4)
React of Arab/ Muslim World. The
Arab states for their own interests formally asked UN, US and international
community for assistance against lraqi hostility.
Deployment of Forces
1.
lraqi Forces.
a. Threat
Perception. Iraq had the following threat perception:
(1)
Counter air operation by the coalition forces.
(2)
A massive air offensive to degrade the capability of the forward positions
followed by multi-pronged ground offensive.
(3)
On reducing the initial defense in the south, the coalition may make an
amphibious landing from the Persian Gulf to retake Kuwait city.
b. Defense Layout/ Saddam Line. Salient features of the lraqi
defense plan were as follow:
(1)
All along Saudi-kuwait border and the coastal belt, an obstacle with five
layers were constructed as follow:
(a)
1st Layer. 12 feet
high sand wall to stop enemy armour.
(b)
2nd Layer. Triple
concertina fence to prevent assaulting infantry or engineers from moving
forward.
(c)
3rd Layer. 10
meter wide anti-tank ditch. A system of phase line was built to bring oil to
the anti-tank ditches. Iraq planned to put them on fire as soon as the ground
battle started.
(d)
4th Layer. Mine
belt.
(e)
5th Layer. Double
apron fence.
(2)
Behind the obstacle belt, 9 Infantry Divisions were placed in rows to cover the
obstacle by fire and attrition during the ground offensive.
(3)
2nd defense belt consisted of mobile armoured reserve. Their task
was to block enemy units that succeeded in penetrating the 1st
defensive belt and reinforce the front line units when needed.
(4)
The Republican Guards were kept as reserve. They were tasked to counter attack
coalition units that would succeed in penetrating up to operational depth.
2.
Coalition Forces.
a.
Commander in Chief. Gen
H Nornman Schwarzkopf.
b.
Military Objective.
(1)
Attack lraqi political-military leadership and command and control.
(2)
Gain and maintain air superiority.
(3)
Destroy lraqi supply lines.
(4)
Destroy known NBC production, storage and delivery capability.
(5)
Destroy republican guards in Kuwait.
(6)
Liberate Kuwait city.
c.
Coalition Offensive Plan. Coalition offensive plan was as
follows:
(1) Operation Desert Shield. –
Mobility of forces and preparation for the offensive against Iraq (02 August 90
to 16 January 91).
(2)
Operation Desert Storm. – Air operation (16 January to 28
February 91).
(3)
Operation Desert Sabre. – Ground Offensive (23 February to 28
February 91).
OPERATION DESERT STORM
1.
General. Air campaign
continued from 17 January to 24 February 91. It was planned to reduce the
fighting capability of Iraq before launching ground offensive. This campaign
certainly accelerated the victory of Coalition Forces over Iraq.
2.
Objective of Air Campaign. The targets
for air campaign plan were selected to secure following objectives:
a.
To achieve complete air supremacy including destruction of lraqi active and
passive air defense measures.
b.
Destruction of C4I, NBC and SSM Capability.
c.
Destruction of existing communication system.
d.
Comprehensive psychological attrite of lraqi forces.
e.
Provide close air support, airlift forces and logistics.
3.
Phasess of Air Campaign.
a.
Phase 1. Destruction of
Iraq’s vital ground by destroying following:
(1)
Offensive and defensive air capability.
(2)
National communication sys.
(3)
NBC research and production capability.
(4)
War production potentials and transports.
(5)
Oil distribution and transport capability.
b.
Phase 2.
(1)
Destroy air defense RADARs and missiles.
(2)
Achieve complete air supremacy.
(3)
Destroy the supply line.
(4)
Controlled attack on Republican Guards.
c.
Phase 3.
(1)
Destroy Iraq’s armour and artillery.
(2)
Killing and demoralizing Iraqi forces.
d.
Phase 4.
(1)
Intelligence.
(2)
Massing air support.
(3)
Protective air cover.
4.
Air Resources used by Opposing Forces
a.
Coalition Forces. The Coalition Forces used a
total of 1,820 assorted combat air craft. Details of combat air craft
contributing countries are; US AF 820, US Navy 380, US Marine 176 (total US
1376), UK 69, Saudi Arabia 175, UAE 50, France 42, Canada 24, Bahrain 24, Italy
10, Kuwait 18, Qatar 12 and Oman 20 (total non US 444).
b.
Iraqi Force. Though there are considerable
disagreements concerning Iraq’s air inventory, however, before the war, Iraq
had the world’s sixth largest air force. As per International Institute of
Strategic Studies, Iraq had:
(1)
Bomber: 8 Tu -22s, 4 Tu-16, and 4
H-6 (Chinese Tu-16).
(2)
Fighters: /FGA/ Reconnaissance: 30 X
J-6 (Chinese MiG-19), 40 X J-7 (Chinese MiG-21), 30 X MiG-29, 32 X MiG-25, 90 X
MiG-23, 155 X MiG-21, 64 X Mirage EQ5/-2000, 30 X Mirage F-1, 30 X Su-7,
70 X Su-20, 16 X Su-24, and 60 X Su-25.
(3)
Airborne Early Warning: 2 X II-76.
(4)
Tankers: 1 X II-76.
(5)
Transports: 10 X An-2, 10 X An-12, 6 X An-24, 2 X An-26, and 19 X II-76.
Iraq also had an
impressive air defense system, including as many as 17,000 surface pieces. The
modern radar system and its control links were located throughout the country.
For greater survivability, many primary Command and Control nodes were buried and
concrete covered to create hardened facilities.
5.
Execution of The Air War.
a.
Commenced with a hi-density strike by sea launched Tomahawk missile, The attack
was followed by waves of strike packages alternatively by hi alt Bx by B-52 and
individual strikes by stealth F117A air craft.
b.
The combat air zone was covered by 4 AWAC (S) which controlled the entire air
space in the theatre of operation.
c.
Each mission was spearheaded by four F-4 (Wild Weasel) and four EF-111(Ravens)
packed with ECM and ECCM pods.
d.
After the clearance, the B for to destroy the targets. The fighter B
accompanied by 4 or more F-15 fighter provided air defense cover. Each strike
package was followed up tactical reconnaissance air craft to assess the damage
to target.
e.
Coalition forces maintained-2500-3000 missiles in 24 hours.
f.
A-10 tank were used to destroy tank targets.
g.
Iraqi’s were hit by Naplam and air fiel explosives.
h.
By 31 January 91, complete air supremacy mas achieved.
6.
Statistics of the Destruction (Outcome of Air Campaign).
a.
90% air defense system, 65% power plants, 45% telecom system, 80% command
and control system.
b.
27 of 36 principal bridges of lraq.
c.
1700 tanks, 1400 artillery pieces and 1210 APCs.
d.
416 air craft were lost whereas coalition lost only 63 air craft. Airbase and
runway destroyed/ cratered.
e.
lraqi defensive obstacle system became ineffective.
f.
Republican Guards and forward troops fighting capability reduced by 75%.
g.
By the beginning of the ground offensive supply system had been completely
broken.
OPERATION DESERT SABRE
1.
General. Operation
Desert Sabre commenced on 24 February 1991 and terminated on 28 February 1991.
Total 18 nations had sent their ground forces, with USA and Britain forces being
the heart of the coalition.
2.
Coalition Aim and Objectives.
a.
The coalition Army had two obvious choices to punch through the fixed lraqi
defense or to outflank to the west Schwarzkopf opted the later.
b.
The aim was to launch a swift out flanking move around lraq’s exposed western
flank to cut him before he had time/chance to withdraw.
c.
Then with the help of air and artillery destroy him in a major tank battle
south of river Euphrates. The objective was to capture area upto south of river
Euphrates.
3.
Allied Deployment. As a part of deception and surprise the Allied
deployment it forces in accordance to the threat perception of lraqi forces.
The deployment was along Saudi-Kuwait border and the area was divided into four
sectors:
a.
1st MEF and JFC (East). Responsible
for eastern part.
b.
JFC (North). Responsible for the area next to it.
c.
7 Corps. Was reserve
for the third sector.
d.
18 Corps. Was responsible for
fourth sector.
4.
Allied Attack Plan. Coalition force has planned to launch a
three-pronged attack as follows:
a.
1st MEF, JFC (East) and JFC (North).
Attack towards thye Kuwait city through the barrier.
b.
18 Corps. Simultaneously launch
encircling attack around the western flank of lraqi forces and capture some
features in the rear to cut off lraqi withdrawal route and reinforcement.
c.
7 Corps. Strike
Republican Guards in the center under the flank protection provided by the
above two forces.
5.
Deception Plan (The Hail Mary Play).
(a)
To support the above plan a deception plan, named as “The Hail Mary Play”
was envisaged.
(b)
US marines were to show a fake major attack/ thrust in the center while rest of
the two corps exploited in the west.
(c)
The forces were held in places till very late and were moved to their new
locations under the cover of dummy HQs which simulated actions in the old
locations.
6.
Development of the Battle.
The battle developed as follows:
a.
24 February 1991.
(1)
The attack began at 0400 hours.
(2)
Coalition forces by passed all the pockets of resistances.
(3)
1st MEF and JFC(E) Captured the Al Jabber and Al Burgan oil field.
(4)
XVIII Surrounded Al Salman.
(5)
VII corps penetrated 45 miles inside enemy territory.
b.
25 February 1991.
(1)
XVIII Corps capture Al Salman.
(2)
1st MEF and JFC CE reached near kuwait city.
c.
26 February 1991.
(1)
Coalition forces secured Kuwait International Airport.
(2)
XVIII Corps reached the highway.
(3)
VII corps seized 02Xtank divisions of Republican Guard.
(4)
VII Corps continued its advance.
d.
27 February 1991.
(1)
Kuwait city was captured.
(2)
Coalition Air Forces attacked the withdrawal Iraqi troops.
(3)
XVIII corps continued the destruction of fleeing troops.
(4)
VII Corps destroyed the rest of the Republican Guard forces.
(5)
Finally, cease fire was announced on 28 February 1991.
Reasons For The Coalition Victory
1.
The major factors, especially from military point of view that contributed to
the coalition victory were:
a. Righteousness of Cause. Whatever may
be the reason Iraq did not have any right to invade Kuwait, another sovereign
country. The Coalition had righteousness of cause that is to save Kuwait.
Coalition’s aim and military Objectives were very clear and simple, protect
Saudi Arabia and evict Iraqis out of Kuwaiti.
b. Application of Suitable Doctrine. The US
doctrine was different. However after entering into the war they devised their
doctrine apply it to the ground with considerable perfection.
c.
Use of Modern Sophisticated Weapon and Ammunition.
The US led coalition capitalizes on precision guided weapons and ammunition,
stealth technology, cruise missiles, active defense system against ballistic
missiles, command, control and integrated intelligence system, satellite and
air borne surveillance, global positioning system, all these
sophistication of the battlefield gave Iraq army no chance.
d. Creation of Viable Command Structure. The
coalition had troops from 34 countries and various types of arms, equipment
other naval and air asset. To transform it into a cohesive force it requires a
gigantic command control structures. HQ of CENTCOM was relocated and massive
communication system is put together to create a viable unified command
structure.
e.
Absolute Air Supremacy. The battle is won
before it fought. The air had a devastating effect on Iraqi defense force. The
allied air power had destroyed everything that contribute to the Iraqi
self-defense, starting from air defense system, communication network, power
plants, intelligence gathering system and command control structures over the
theatre of operations.
f.
Logistic Balance. An embargo was placed on Iraq
regarding its export and import. It crippled their logistic system. They were
running short of spares and other required materials. On the other hand
coalition attacked only when they were fully prepared including their
full-fledged logistic system.
g.
Surprise and Deception. The Iraq’s
expected an allied attack through Kuwait but coalition outflanked them and
caught them on surprise. They also achieved tactical surprise which completely
off balances the Iraqi force.
h.
Concentration of Forces. The coalition
completed the concentration before going for offensive. It had troops from
almost 38 countries. Almost all the developed countries participated in air
campaign and contributed modern aircraft. No of aircraft carriers also
concentrated around the Persian Gulf.
j.
Training.
The coalition carried out rigorous training for ensuing operation since most of
the troops were not familiar with tough terrain and rough weather. It gave them
immense fruit during operation.
k.
Maintenance of Momentum.
The coalition maintained the momentum in the entire front political, economic
and finally military. And once the air campaign began it gave no respite to
Iraq and immediately after carried out the ground assault on to them. This
resulted in complete victory.
l. Psychological Warfare. After subjecting the Iraqi troops to
severe air bombardments specially prepared leaflets were air dropped asking the
Iraqis to give up their resistance the demoralized Iraqis surrendered in their
thousands even before the commencement of the ground war.
Lessons Learnt
1. The major military lessons are:
a. Fixed Defense. It
has often been of value, but as the same it was demonstrated in history, their
weakness also, that a determined enemy, given sufficient time and resources,
can always overcome them.
b. Air Support. Air
support plays a vital role in any modern battle both for the defender and the
attacker. Due to lack of proper air support a formidable Iraqi defense was not
capable of dealing with the coalition attackers as expected. On the other hand,
the war was literally won by the Coalition Forces by their air campaign before
the ground battle commenced.
c. Surprise and Deception.
The elements of surprise and deception are considered as key determinants
of success in military operations. The superb execution of coalition deception
plan caught Iraq by total surprise. This led to the rapid collapse of Iraqi
resistance and quick allied victory.
d. Electronic Warfare.
Electronic Warfare is no longer just the "wizard war" rather
it is now so integral to effective war machine that it is difficult to isolate
and analyze it as a separate entity. It is the intelligent application of
command, control, Communication and Intelligence system which provides
guarantee to military success. The Coalition's ability to degrade the enemy's
C&I system with a significant ECM capability was a major battle winning factor.
Therefore, one must retain its capability to fight under ECM environment.
e. Morale. The Gulf
war proved once again that well trained, well-motivated and well led forces
will prevail over poorly trained, poorly motivated and poorly led troops. No
matter what scientific and technological advances are made on the battle field,
this axiom holds good from the highest to the lowest ranks of an army and must
never be forgotten.
f. Logistics.
Comprehensive logistic preparation ensures success in the war. This entails two
things; first, the need for sufficient logistic buildup for a successful and
protracted war, second, the need for secured line of communication. Though Iraq
could build up some reserve stocks in their defensive positions but they could
not maintain a secured line of communication. On the other hand the coalition’s
forces took seven months to build up their stocks and ensured their secured
line of communication.
g. All Arms Cooperation.
Cooperation among the arms and services contribute to the victory to a great
extent. This has been amply demonstrated in the Gulf war.
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